“Eastern” Christianity
Distinguishing the Following 3 Groups: the Byzantines (or Chalcedonians), the Oriental Orthodox, and the Churches of the East (or Nestorian and Eastern Syrians)
Concerned about divisions within the church of Ephesus, the Apostle Paul wrote “There is one body and one Spirit, just as you were called to one hope when you were called; one Lord, one faith, one baptism; one God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all” (Eph 4:4-6, NIV). Historically speaking, Christians desire unity with each other, but they also want to be free to express their faith according to their own distinctive cultures. When Christianity expanded throughout and beyond the Mediterranean world, Christians encountered a variety of languages and cultures, which impacted how they understood the faith and lived their lives.
From the fourth century onward, the Roman Empire began to split into two regions. Christians in the Western Roman Empire (encompassing the western Mediterranean world) had their geographical focus on Rome, and Latin became the dominant language of their theological conversations. This group of churches eventually became known as Catholic, a term which means “universal.”[1] Ignatius of Antioch, in his Letter to the Smyrnæans (8:2), is the first to use the word καθολικός (catholicos) or “catholic” to refer to the universal church of his day. While the terms catholic and orthodox would be used by both Western and Eastern Christians throughout their history, with the rise of Protestantism in the sixteenth century, the term Catholic became the preferred term for the western churches who submitted to the authority of the Pope in Rome, and the term Orthodox became the preferred term for the eastern churches who submitted to the authority of multiple patriarchs.The geographical focus of Christians was more diversified in the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, which encompassed the eastern Mediterranean world. Eastern Christians still recognized the Bishop of Rome as one of the main leaders (or “patriarchs”) of the church, but they also recognized the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.[2] Eastern Christians tend to operate independently according to churches within a country such as Greece, Russia, Egypt, or Serbia. Greek continued to be the dominant language of theological conversations in the East. This group of churches is broadly referred to as Orthodox, a term which means “correct” (as in understanding the truth correctly and living it accurately).
When theological controversies arose, Christians would discuss the matters in their own churches and eventually send their leaders to meetings with other church leaders for further discussion. Ecumenical councils were the attempts of eastern and western church leaders representing all major centers of Christianity to gather to discuss theological controversies. They hoped to arrive at a theological consensus. The ecumenical councils that met in Nicæa (nī-SEE-uh, 325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (431), and Chalcedon (KAL-sě-don, 451) especially focused on the person of Jesus Christ—namely, how the church should understand and explain the divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ in such a way that is both faithful to Scripture but also systematically consistent. The council that met in Chalcedon concluded that Jesus exists “in two natures;[3] without confusing the two natures, without transmuting one nature into the other, without dividing them into two separate categories, without contrasting them according to area or function.”[4] In other words, the divine and human natures of Jesus are united unconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, and inseparably.[5]
While the western churches found the definition suitable, the eastern churches had strong reactions that resulted in the splintering of Eastern Christianity into three distinct groups.[6] Those who stood by the Definition of Chalcedon were called the Chalcedonians or Byzantine Orthodox. These are the churches, especially associated with the Patriarch of Constantinople, who sought to maintain their ties with Rome and the Western Church. There was a close relationship between the Byzantine Emperor and the Church. They often sought compromises with the other eastern and western churches in the name of maintaining theological unity but also to protect their political influence.
The second group was known as the Oriental Orthodox or Non-Chalcedonians.[7] They agreed with the explanation of Jesus Christ given by Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria in a dispute between Cyril and Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople. This dispute is what led to the Council of Chalcedon in the first place. This group claimed that Jesus came “out of two natures,” one divine and one human, but both fused into one nature from the time of His conception. The Coptic, Syrian, Armenian, and Ethiopian Churches belong to this group. Another reason these churches separated from the others in the east is that these churches were among the non-Greek cultures. They desired some autonomy from the Greek-dominated Byzantine Church.
The third group was known as the Church of the East or Assyrians who sided with the patriarch Nestorius in his disagreement with Cyril. Nestorius taught that Jesus had two persons inside of him: one divine and one human. Nestorius rejected the idea that Mary could be called the Theotokos, or “bearer of God,” because she was only bearing the human (not the divine) person inside of her. This group of churches would be the first to encounter Muslims as they began to move north and west from the Arabian Peninsula.
Many people in the Western world are unaware that the Christian church divided into factions and denominations long before the Protestant Reformation. Because of its geographic and cultural setting in the western Roman empire, the Roman Catholic tradition is often the only ancient church tradition people in the Western world encounter on a regular basis, so it is the only one they are familiar with. Therefore, it is important to recognize that Roman Catholicism is only one Christian tradition among many that can trace their roots back to the beginnings of the Christianity.
[1] Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “Catholic,” accessed September 27, 2021, https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=2678. Ignatius of Antioch, in his Letter to the Smyrnæans (8:2), is the first to use the word καθολικός to refer to the universal church of his day. While the terms catholic and orthodox would be used by both Western and Eastern Christians throughout their history, with the rise of Protestantism in the sixteenth century, the term Catholic became the preferred term for the western churches who submitted to the authority of the Pope in Rome, and the term Orthodox became the preferred term for the eastern churches who submitted to the authority of multiple patriarchs.
[2] The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, s.v. “The Orthodox Church,” second edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). The idea of the pope’s being the “first among equals” can be seen in Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church, new edition (New York: Penguin, 1993), 28.
[3] The English term two natures is a translation of the Greek term duo physesin. The Greek spelling for the singular form of “nature” is φúσις. See Richard A. Muller, Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000).
[4] This is the English translation of the Chalcedonian Definition provided by John H. Leith, ed. Creeds of the Churches: A Reader in Christian Doctrine from the Bible to the Present, third edition (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1982), 36.
[5] Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, s.v. “Council of Chalcedon,” third edition (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2017).
[6] Everett Ferguson, Church History: Volume One—From Christ to the Pre-Reformation, second edition (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013).
[7] While the Oriental Orthodox are often called Monophysites (lit. “only one nature”) in Western Christian Literature, this term is considered derogatory they prefer the term Miaphysite or or Henophysite (lit. “one—but not necessarily only one—nature”).
